This post is part of my Research Methods series, which explores essential approaches for historical inquiry and archival work. The series encompasses a broad range of topics, including library research practices, citations, and research strategies, as well as archives, primary sources, visual resources, oral history, and digital humanities. Together, these posts provide a foundation for navigating sources, interpreting evidence, and engaging critically with the past.
Archives are living repositories of memory, culture, and evidence, carefully preserved so that individuals and communities can understand the past and make sense of the present. For historians, genealogists, students, and the curious public alike, archives provide the raw research material. To use them effectively, it is helpful to understand what archives are, how they function, and why their principles are important.
Defining Archives
The word archives has multiple meanings. It can refer to:
The materials themselves: the records created or received by a person, family, or organization in the course of their activities, preserved because of enduring value.
The division or organization: the unit responsible for maintaining those records.
A collecting repository: an institution that gathers archives from individuals, families, or groups.
The physical space: the building, or part of a building, where archival collections are housed.
This layered definition reflects the complexity of archives, as they encompass both the content and the context, the source and the structure.
Types of Archives
Archives exist in different forms depending on their mission:
Institutional archives preserve the records of a parent body, such as a university or corporation.
Collecting archives gather materials from many creators, often around a theme.
Community archives document the experiences of specific groups, particularly those that have been marginalized in traditional recordkeeping.
Combination archives blend these functions.
The diversity of archival institutions means that no two repositories are alike. Each reflects its origins, goals, and the communities it serves.
Core Archival Functions
Regardless of type, most archives share common functions:
Acquisition: securing materials of enduring value.
Appraisal: determining what to keep and what to discard.
Arrangement and description: organizing collections and creating finding aids.
Preservation: protecting materials physically and digitally.
Reference: providing access and guidance to researchers.
Outreach: engaging communities and promoting use.
These activities ensure that archives are not static warehouses but active spaces of stewardship.
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
A central concept in archival work is the distinction between primary and secondary sources.
Primary sources are created during the time of an event or later by participants reflecting on it. They bring researchers close to firsthand experience.
Secondary sources are works that interpret, analyze, or comment on primary sources, such as books, articles, or reviews.
Both are vital. Primary sources provide raw evidence, while secondary sources frame and interpret the evidence, facilitating scholarly dialogue.
Historical Development
Archives as institutions have deep roots. In Europe, the French Revolution (1789) spurred the development of public recordkeeping, while Britain’s Public Record Office was established in 1838. In the United States, the National Archives was established in 1934, followed by the creation of the Society of American Archivists in 1936. The 1930s also saw the establishment of the Historical Records Survey under the Works Progress Administration, which inventoried local records across the nation.
Technological advancements have significantly reshaped recordkeeping, from the invention of paper and printing to the advent of digital computers and the internet. The 1970s saw rapid growth in repositories, graduate archival education, the development of new standards, and an expanded interest in documenting histories related to race, gender, labor, LGBTQIA+ communities, and other marginalized groups.
Formats and Diversity of Records
Archives contain a wide range of formats beyond paper:
Manuscripts and records
Maps, plans, and architectural drawings
Photographs and visual materials
Audiovisual media
Born-digital files and computer-generated materials
Ephemera, artifacts, and memorabilia
This diversity requires archivists to adapt preservation methods and researchers to expand their definitions of evidence.
Guiding Principles
Several enduring principles guide archival work:
Use: Records exist to be used, not just stored.
Preservation: Some materials must be preserved long-term even after immediate use has passed.
Completeness: Records should be kept as coherently as possible, with contextual information intact.
Organization: Records must be properly arranged and maintained in a timely manner.
Privacy: Sensitive information must be protected.
Equity: Collections should be administered impartially.
Two additional cornerstones are:
Provenance: Records should be maintained according to their origin, preserving the link between documents and their creators.
Original order: Records should remain in the sequence established by their creator, which preserves relationships and facilitates access.
These principles distinguish archives from libraries, ensuring that records retain both their authenticity and context.
Access and Services
Archives provide more than storage; they offer services that support discovery and access.
Researchers can expect:
Information about holdings and creators
Guidance on research processes
Reading rooms for physical access
Assistance with copyright and laws
Referrals to other repositories
Duplication services, sometimes with fees
Increasingly, archives also offer digital access, though most materials remain undigitized. Researchers must be prepared for patient, hands-on work.
Preparing for Research
Effective archival research begins with preparation. Before visiting, ask:
Who created the records?
Why and when were they produced?
What formats exist?
Where might they be housed today?
Secondary sources help establish context. Contacting the archive in advance, planning adequate time, and bringing specific questions all improve the research experience.
During visits, keep detailed notes, track the materials consulted, and remain flexible. Questions often evolve as sources reveal unexpected directions. Archivists are invaluable guides, and a thank-you card never goes unnoticed.
Rules of the Reading Room
Archival research comes with specific protocols to protect fragile materials:
Register with ID if required.
Store coats, bags, and personal items in lockers.
Use pencils only; no pens or markers are allowed.
Handle documents by edges, supporting fragile items.
Return materials in original order.
Requests for materials may take time, and restrictions may apply due to law, donor agreements, condition, or processing status.
Duplication and Copyright
Reproducing archival materials requires permission. Some repositories allow personal scanners or cameras, but always ask in advance. Larger orders or audiovisual reproductions may require additional time and incur fees.
Copyright adds another layer. Ownership of a document does not always mean ownership of its intellectual property. Researchers must respect rights holders, understand the concept of fair use, and obtain permission for publication when necessary.
Archives in the Digital Era
While online research has expanded dramatically, it also presents challenges. Context and guidance are more challenging to convey online, and user expectations for speed often conflict with the reality that most archival materials remain undigitized.
Digital tools can aid discovery, but they cannot replace the richness of handling original documents, hearing oral histories, or working directly with archivists. The future of archives lies in striking a balance between digital access and traditional stewardship.
Archives preserve the fragments of human experience, such as letters, photographs, reports, and recordings that might otherwise be lost. They do so not for nostalgia but for use, ensuring that individuals and communities can understand their histories and make informed decisions about the future.
By learning archival principles, respecting rules of access, and engaging thoughtfully with primary sources, researchers can unlock the power of archives. In every box of documents or digital file, there is the potential for discovery: a story waiting to be told, a voice waiting to be heard, a connection waiting to be made.
